by Perlea, Victor ¹, Mayer, Gwendolyn ¹

• ¹ Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg

The introduction and overview [abridged version] can be found here
The introduction and overview [extended version] can be found here

Disclaimer:We have compiled this information to the best of our knowledge based on current scientific literature (as of May 2026). However, we do not provide diagnosis or treatment recommendations. If you notice any mental health concerns in yourself or in a child or adolescent in your care, please consult a medical doctor.

References

Agyapong-Opoku, N., Agyapong-Opoku, F., & Greenshaw, A. J. (2025). Effects of Social Media Use on Youth and Adolescent Mental Health: A Scoping Review of Reviews. Behavioral Sciences, 15(5), 574. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050574

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften. (2021). S3-Leitlinie Behandlung von Angststörungen (Version 2). https://register.awmf.org/assets/guidelines/051-028l_S3_Behandlung-von-Angststoerungen_2021-06.pdf

Australian ADHD Professionals Association. (2022). Australian evidence-based clinical practice guideline for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ADHD-Clinical-Practice-Guide-041022.pdf

Autism Speaks. (n.d.). Applied behavior analysis (ABA). Retrieved June 2, 2026, from https://www.autismspeaks.org/applied-behavior-analysis

The Autism Service. (2023, March 20). Music therapy and autism: How it can help people with ASD. https://theautismservice.co.uk/music-therapy-and-autism-how-it-can-help-children-and-adults-with-asd/

Bennett, B. L., Pokhrel, P., & Latner, J. D. (2023). Delivering a media literacy intervention for body dissatisfaction using an app-based intervention: A feasibility and pilot trial. Eating behaviors, 50, 101770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2023.101770

Berry, S. L., Burton, A. L., Rogers, K., Lee, C. M., & Berle, D. M. (2025). A systematic review and meta-analysis of eating disorder preventative interventions in schools. European eating disorders review: the journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 33(2), 390–410. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.3149

Bondy, A., & Frost, L. (2001). The Picture Exchange Communication System. Behavior Modification, 25(5), 725–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445501255004

Chan, C. (2025, August 22). Applied behavioral analysis (ABA) controversy explained. Autism Today Foundation. https://www.autismtoday.com/applied-behavioral-analysis/

Dolle, K., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2013). The treatment of depressive disorders in children and adolescents. Deutsches Ärzteblatt international, 110(50), 854–860. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2013.0854

Eom, T. H., & Kim, Y.-H. (2024). Clinical practice guidelines for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Recent updates. Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics, 67(1), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.3345/cep.2021.01466

Ernstmeyer, K., & Christman, M. S. (2022). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK590039/

Fadus, M. C., Squeglia, L. M., Valadez, E. A., Tomko, R. L., Bryant, B. E., & Gray, K. M. (2019). Adolescent Substance Use Disorder Treatment: an Update on Evidence-Based Strategies. Current psychiatry reports, 21(10), 96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1086-0

Genovese, A., & Butler, M. G. (2023). The Autism Spectrum: Behavioral, Psychiatric and Genetic Associations. Genes, 14(3), 677. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14030677

Gersib, J. A., Rojo, M., King, S. G., & Doabler, C. T. (2024). Motivational interviewing for students in school settings: A meta-analysis. Journal of school psychology, 107, 101386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101386

Goldschmidt, A. B., Tortolani, C. C., Egbert, A. H., Brick, L. A., Elwy, A. R., Donaldson, D., & Le Grange, D. (2022). Implementation and outcomes of home-based treatments for adolescents with anorexia nervosa: Study protocol for a pilot effectiveness-implementation trial. The International journal of eating disorders, 55(11), 1627–1634. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23796

Le Grange, D., Eckhardt, S., Dalle Grave, R., Crosby, R. D., Peterson, C. B., Keery, H., … Martell, C. (2022). Enhanced cognitive-behavior therapy and family-based treatment for adolescents with an eating disorder: a non-randomized effectiveness trial. Psychological Medicine, 52(13), 2520–2530. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720004407

Griffin, K. W., Williams, C., Botvin, C. M., Sousa, S., & Botvin, G. J. (2022) Effectiveness of a hybrid digital substance abuse prevention approach combining e-Learning and in-person class sessions. Frontiers in Digital Health, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdgth.2022.931276

Grüning Parache, L., Vogel, M., Meigen, C., et al. (2024). Family structure, socioeconomic status, and mental health in childhood. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 2377–2386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-023-02329-y

Haas, V., Wechsung, K., Kaiser, V., Schmidt, J., Raile, K., Busjahn, A., Le Grange, D., & Correll, C. U. (2024). Comparing family-based treatment with inpatient treatment in youth with anorexia nervosa eligible for hospitalization: A 12-month feasibility study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 57(2), 388–399. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.24098

Hagan, K. E., Matheson, B. E., Datta, N., L'Insalata, A. M., Onipede, Z. A., Gorrell, S., Mondal, S., Bohon, C. M., Le Grange, D., & Lock, J. D. (2023). Understanding outcomes in family-based treatment for adolescent anorexia nervosa: a network approach. Psychological medicine, 53(2), 396–407. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721001604

Hasin, D. S., O'Brien, C. P., Auriacombe, M., Borges, G., Bucholz, K., Budney, A., Compton, W. M., Crowley, T., Ling, W., Petry, N. M., Schuckit, M., & Grant, B. F. (2013). DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: recommendations and rationale. The American journal of psychiatry, 170(8), 834–851. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12060782

Hetrick, S. E., McKenzie, J. E., Bailey, A. P., Sharma, V., Moller, C. I., Badcock, P. B., Cox, G. R., Merry, S. N., & Meader, N. (2021). New generation antidepressants for depression in children and adolescents: A network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2021(5), Article CD013674. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013674.pub2

Hill, E. D., Kashyap, P., Raffanello, E., et al. (2025). Prediction of mental health risk in adolescents. Nature Medicine, 31, 1840–1846. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-025-03560-7

Horigian, V. E., Anderson, A. R., & Szapocznik, J. (2016). Family-Based Treatments for Adolescent Substance Use. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 25(4), 603–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2016.06.001

Kim, Y. J., Lee, J. H., Kim, D. H., Kim, S. A., Lee, H. J., Kim, Y. J., Kim, Y. S., & Yoo, J. H. (2023). Clinical practice guidelines for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics, 67(1), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.3345/cep.2021.01466

Kölch, M., Rassenhofer, M., & Fegert, J. M. (Eds). (2020). Klinikmanual Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und -psychotherapie (3rd ed.) Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-58418-7

Kulis, S., Nieri, T., Yabiku, S., Stromwall, L. K., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2007). Promoting reduced and discontinued substance use among adolescent substance users: effectiveness of a universal prevention program. Prevention science: the official journal of the Society for Prevention Research, 8(1), 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-006-0052-3

Liu, L., Yang, J., Tan, F., Yang, X., Luo, H., Chen, Y., & Zhao, X. (2025). Digital Interventions for Improving Body Dissatisfaction in Children and Emerging Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Interactive journal of medical research, 14, e72231. https://doi.org/10.2196/72231

Love, C., Sominsky, L., O'Hely, M., Berk, M., Vuillermin, P., & Dawson, S. L. (2024). Prenatal environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder and their potential mechanisms. BMC medicine, 22(1), 393. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-024-03617-3

Magnus W, Anilkumar AC, Shaban K. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. [Updated 2023 Aug 8]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441838/

Marshall, T., Reeson, M., Loverock, A. et al. Evidence-based Interventions for Youth With Concurrent Mental Health and Substance Use Disorders: A Scoping Review. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 70(5). 347–371. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437241300957

Martínez, K., Menéndez-Menéndez, M. I., & Bustillo, A. (2021). Awareness, prevention, detection, and therapy applications for depression and anxiety in serious games for children and adolescents: Systematic review. JMIR Serious Games, 9(4), e30482. https://doi.org/10.2196/30482

Meo, S. A., Shafi, K. M., & Hussain, A. (2025). The psychological cost of climate change: Anxiety among adolescents and young adults - a cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 16, 1422338. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1422338

De Micheli, D., Andrade, A. L. M., & Galduróz, J. C. (2021). Limitations of DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in adolescents: what have we learned after using these criteria for several years?. Revista brasileira de psiquiatria, 43(4), 349–350. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1151

Nieri, T., Apkarian, J., Kulis, S., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2015). Effects of a youth substance use prevention program on stealing, fighting, and weapon use. The journal of primary prevention, 36(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-014-0373-0

Patel, V., Chisholm, D., Dua, T., Laxminarayan, R., & Medina-Mora, M. E. (Eds.). (2016). Mental, neurological, and substance use disorders: Disease Control Priorities (3rd ed., Vol. 4). The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0426-7

Paulus, F. W., Ohmann, S., von Gontard, A., & Popow, C. (2018). Internet gaming disorder in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 60(7), 645–659. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13754

Pogarell, O., Lieb, K., Turner, D., & Tüscher, O. (2023). Störungen durch Substanzkonsum oder abhängige Verhaltensweisen. In K. Lieb (Hrsg.), Intensivkurs Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie (10. Aufl., S. 367–405). Urban & Fischer. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-3-437-23492-7.00013-6

Schulte-Körne, G. (2018). Prävention psychischer Störungen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Bayerisches Ärzteblatt, 73(4), 190–193. https://www.bayerisches-aerzteblatt.de/fileadmin/aerzteblatt/ausgaben/2018/04/einzelpdf/BAB_4_2018_190_193.pdf

Schulte-Körne, G., Klingele, C., Zsigo, C., & Kloek, M. (2023). S3-Leitlinie depressive Störungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter: Wo geht es hin? Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz, 66(7), 767–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-023-03721-4

Shah, R., Grover, S., & Avasthi, A. (2019). Clinical practice guidelines for the assessment and management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(Suppl. 2), 176–193. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_543_18

Solmi, M., Radua, J., Olivola, M., Croce, E., Soardo, L., Salazar de Pablo, G., Ilioska, I., Shin, J. I., Kirkbride, J. B., Jones, P., Kim, J. H., Carvalho, A. F., Seeman, M. V., Correll, C. U., & Fusar-Poli, P. (2021). Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: Large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(10), 885–898. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00395-3

Solmi, M., Radua, J., Olivola, M., Croce, E., Soardo, L., Salazar de Pablo, G., Shin, J., Kirkbride, J. B., Jones, P., Kim, J. H., Kim, J. Y., Carvalho, A. F., Seeman, M. V., Correll, C. U., & Fusar-Poli, P. (2022). Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Molecular psychiatry, 27(1), 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7

Strice, E., Onipede, Z. A., & Marti, C. N. (2021). A meta-analytic review of trials that tested whether eating disorder prevention programs prevent eating disorder onset. Clinical Psychology Review, 87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102046

TEACCH Autism Program. (n.d.). Training. Retrieved June 2, 2026, from https://teacch.com/trainings/
Varela, C., Hoyo, Á., Tapia Sanz, M.E., Jiménez-González, A.I., Moral, B.J., Rodríguez Fernández, P., Vargas Hernández, Y., & Ruiz Sánchez, L.J. (2023). An update on the underlying risk factors of eating disorders onset during adolescence: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology 14(1221679). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1221679

Wolraich, M. L., Hagan, J. F., Allan, C., Chan, E., Davison, D., Earls, M., Evans, S. W., Flinn, S. K., Froehlich, T., Frost, J., Holbrook, J. R., Lehmann, C. U., Lessin, H. R., Okechukwu, K., Pierce, K. L., Winner, J. D., Zurhellen, W., & Subcommittee on Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. (2019). Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 144(4), e20192528. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-2528

Wong, R. S., Chan, B. N. K., Lai, S. I., & Tung, K. T. S. (2024). School-based eating disorder prevention programmes and their impact on adolescent mental health: systematic review. BJPsych Open, 10(6), e196. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2024.795

World Health Organization. (2025). International classification of diseases 11th revision (ICD-11): Mortality and morbidity statistics (Version 2025-01). Retrieved June 2, 2026, from https://icd.who.int/browse/2025-01/mms/en#437815624

World Health Organization. (n.d.). Mental health of adolescents. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health

Xie, H. (2022). A scoping review of gamification for mental health in children: Uncovering its key features and impact. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 41, 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2022.07.003

Zeiler, M., Vögl, S., Prinz, U., Werner, N., Wagner, G., Karwautz, A., Zeller, N., Ackermann, L., & Waldherr, K. (2025). Game design, effectiveness, and implementation of serious games promoting aspects of mental health literacy among children and adolescents: Systematic review. JMIR Mental Health, 12, e67418. https://doi.org/10.2196/67418